As the British had divided Kenya into provinces, districts, divisions and locations the new, independent government was based on a highly sophisticated and centralized bureaucracy, soon becoming deeply dependent on it whenever it needed to contact the people around the country (Kanyinga, 2007: 356). The Provincial Administration was dominated by the Kikuyu, holding four of the eight Provincial Commissioner (PC) positions, while two were Kalenjin and one was coming from Kisii and Luo each. Major groups like Kamba and Luhya had no PC. On the level below the Kikuyu held 38 percent of all District Commissioners (DC) positions in 1976 (Kanyinga, 2007: 388). The Kikuyu had been living in the proximity of the capital of the British and in the mainlands of the settler economy. This not only enabled them to develop an economic base considerably stronger than the ones of other ethnic groups but also gave them easier access to education and other basic governance services as well as allowing early entry into the wage labor system. After independence the accumulation of Kikuyu capital in the agriculture and finance sectors continued, with the state promoting the process and producing ethnic inequalities. Other ethnic groups were marginalized even though they were numerous (Kanyinga, 2007: 347-348).

Tribal divisions were expressed by party affiliations as KANU was representing the ethnic groups of the Embu, Gusii, Kamba, Kikuyu and Luo and the rivaling party, the Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), was representing the smaller ethnic groups in the Rift Valley and from the coast (Kanyinga, 2007: 356), considering themselves the 'have nots' of the country (Barkan, 1992: 169-170). Notable groups inside KADU were the Kalenjin, Maasai, Turkana and Samburu (KAMATUSA). The basis of their coalition was the fear of being dominated by the numerically larger groups organized in KANU (Kanyinga, 2007: 356). There was a convergence of interests of KADU and the white settlers in favoring federalism and protecting the land rights, that Kalenjin were keen on, in contrast to the Kikuyu and Luo interest of a centralist regime (Kanyinga, 2007: 369).

Kenyatta was a personal ruler, with as much power as a monarch (Akivaga, 2002: 11). He continued to rule with force, just like the British did before (Kaia, 1998: 57). The federal form of government was soon broken down to a strong, unitary state by KANU (Kanyinga, 2007: 356). The juridical basis of the authorities was not changed after the British left the country, but the Kenyan people were still subjugated to the old laws, and these were even supplemented by new ones, making people even more subject to the interests of the elite (Kaia, 1998: 56). The colonial structures of power were not questioned or changed but only hastily transitioned (Ndegwa, 1998: 352) and the new elite rather just took over the positions and replaced the colonialists, continuing with the same business as before (Ntarangwi, 2003: 226). The governance provided by this state was heavily informalised and depending on the persons in power rather than on transparent and accountable rules, creating a feeling of uncertainty for all those having to deal with the authorities (Akivaga, 2002: 8). This obviously opened space for corruption already known in Kenya before as in 1956 the Prevention of Corruption ordinance was adopted by the British (Okoth-Ogwang', 2007: 21).

Appendix

Abbreviations

DC                  District Commissioner

KADU            Kenya African Democratic Union

KAMATUSA  Kalenjin, Maasai, Turkana and Samburu

KANU             Kenyan African National Union

PC                  Province Commissioner

References

Akivaga, S. Kichamu (2002): Towards a National Movement for Democratic Change in Kenya. In: Mute, L. M. / Akivaga, S. Kichamu / Kioko, Wanza (eds.): Building an Open Society: The Politics of Transition in Kenya. Nairobi, Claripress: 7-37.

Barkan, Joel D. (1992): The Rise and Fall of a Governance Realm in Kenya. In: Hyden, Goran / Bratton, Michael (eds.): Governance and Politics in Africa , Boulder and London, Lynne Rienner Publishers: 162-197.

Kaia, Maina (1998): Kenya's Experience and Lessons in Human Rights and Democracy. In: Trócaire Development Review 1998: 55-64.

Kanyinga, Karuti (2007): Governance institutions and inequality. In: Society for International Development (SID). Readings on inequality in Kenya. Nairobi, SID: 345-398.

Ndegwa, Stephen. N. (1998): Citizenship Amid Economic and Political Change in Kenya. In: Africa Today 3-4/1998: 351-368.

Ntarangwi, Mwenda (2003): The Challenge of Education and Development in Post-Colonial Kenya. In: Africa Development 3-4/2003: 211-228.

Okoth-Ogwang', Lando Victor (2007): Rethinking Kenya's Anti-Corruption Strategies: lessons from Botswana. Diss. University of Pretoria 2007.